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//Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences// Howard Gardner


 * Summary**

Note on the project on Human Potential:

This preferace gives us some history of the seeds that began the research which this book is part of. The Project on Human Potential is a research group at the Harvard Graduate School of Education started when the Bernard van Leer Foundation of The Haugue, Netherlands requested its services to assess the state of scientific knowledge concerning human potential and its realization. The foundation is an international non-profit institution with the focus on developing community approaches to early childhood education and childcare in order to help disadvantaged children to realize their potential. This book is the first in a series to come out of the research supported in this project. This project has strong multi-cultural foundation and focus, and through international communication is has looked to create a “multidisciplinary environment for understanding human potential.”

Chapter 1: The Idea of Multiple Intelligences

In this chapter, Gardner outlines his basic aims in writing this book, and how he came about formulating these theories. He begins with the scene of a young girl taking an IQ test, and what kind of impact such test can have on her life, making a case for the value western society has put on an hour’s worth of questions. He also paints an international contrast of different skills valued in different cultures, and how there is no real measure of some forms of expertise. He states that the “problem lies less in the technology of testing than in the ways in which we customarily think about the intellect and our ingrained views of intelligence. Only if we expand and reformulate our view of what counts as human intellect will be able to devise more appropriate ways of assessing it and more effective ways of educating it.” The purpose of the book, he states is to formulate a view of intelligence, which incorporates a wide range of abilities. In the following chapters a new theory of human intellectual competences that will outline the classical view of intelligence. In order to for us to understand this he will have us consider the traditional view, where it came form and how is became so “entrenched” in our society. He speaks of the centering on mental powers in the roots of our civilization, from the rise of the Greek city-state. He introduces us to two schools of thought in the study of intelligence, the “hedgehogs”, and the “foxes”. The hedgehogs view intelligence as one piece, and the foxes believe that intelligences are fragmented into several pieces. He states that this is still a continuing debate about “parceling intellect into parts”. “The time may be at hand for some clarification about the structure of the human intellectual competence” Gardener states, and the “confluence” of the large body of evidence from a variety of sources in this purpose of this book, to argue that there is evidence and existence of several “relatively autonomous” human intellectual competences, abbreviated in this book as “human intelligences”, his “frames of mind”. He states his belief in some intelligences, a set number not fixed, but intelligences that are “relatively independent of on another, and that they can be fashioned and combined in a multiplicity of adaptive ways by individuals and cultures”. Gardner describes his research methods, reviewing work from a large group of unrelated sources, listing a spectrum of different groups of people from normal adults children to idiot savants and brain-damaged individuals. The remaining paragraphs of this chapter go to state his assignments of this book. Number one being his desire “to expand the purviews of cognitive and developmental psychology.” In one direction this will be focused on the biological and evolutionary roots of cognition, and the other direction will be looking at the cultural variations in cognitive competence. Number two he states his “wish to examine the educational implications of a theory of multiple intelligences”, as well as how an individual’s profile can be used to further their educational experience and opportunity. Thirdly, He would like to inspire educationally oriented anthropologists to develop how these competences can be fostered in different cultural environments, determining if these theories can translate to other cultures. Finally Gardener would like to reach other influential individuals responsible for the “development of other individual”. To aid such individuals he has developed a framework for educational situations centered on his idea of multiple intelligences, and hopefully “discourage those interventions that seem doomed for failure and encourage those that have a chance for success.”

Chapter 2: Intelligence: Earlier Views

In this chapter Gardner gives us a basic understanding of how people began to study the brain and thought. He discusses the sciences of psychology and philosophy, Jean Piaget and the more contemporary approaches of the “Information-Processing” and the “Symbol Systems” approach. This chapter begins with the introduction of the “phrenology” of Gall, which is the theory that the variations in skull shape and size can determine the mental capacity of the brain inside of it. However Gall was the first of modern scientists (he practiced in the late 1700s) to stress that different parts of the brain mediate different functions. The beginnings of the science of psychology are discussed, stating the lack of connection with psychology and the groups who where conducting experiments with the human brain, showing a desire for psychology to distance itself from physiology and neurology. Gardener discusses the strand of science psychology that searched for individual differences, the individual profiles of ability and disability. A leader in this field in the 1800s was Sir Francis Galton of England who developed statistical methods that made it possible to rank human beings by abilities, both physical and intellectual. Adding the belief to involve language and abstraction to a more accurate assessment of human intellect was Alfred Binet. With colleague Theodore Simon, they developed the first tests of intelligence. He discusses the general thought of nearly all scholars today in the excessive enthusiasm over intelligence in the field of psychology. Gardener spends the next few pages discussing Jean Piaget and his cognitive development theories. Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist, beginning his career around 1920, who began as a researcher working in Theodore Simon’s laboratory. His research began when taking interest in the mistakes the children made during testing. His belief was that it wasn’t the accuracy of the child’s response, but the reasoning the child invokes during the problem solving process. He developed a radically different and powerful view of human cognition. Gardener goes in detail to describe the theory of Piaget and the concept of the successive stages and operations. He describes Piaget to be //the// theorist of cognitive development, however even considering the weaknesses of his theory. Piaget has painted a” redoubtable picture of development, it is still only one sort of development”. He states that the broad outlines of development remain of interest some of the specific details are simply not correct, and that there is evidence that children can move through the stages faster than the theory allows. The next few page or so describe the current form of study of the intellect named the “information-processing psychology”, or approach. Also know as cognitive science, the “information processing psychologist uses experimental psychology methods to investigate the task of Piaget and cognitive theorists. Gardner’s main problem in this approach is its lack of contact with the operation of the nervous system, and its little interest in the open-ended creativity that he feels is crucial to the highest levels of human intellectual achievement. This brings us to Gardener’s school of thought, the “symbol systems” approach. This theory focuses on neglected areas of human faculties in intellectual theory: biology and higher levels of creativity. He states along with his colleagues, not to discard totally Piaget’s methods, but to focus them not only on linguistic logical and numerical symbols but also upon a full range of “symbol systems encompassing musical, bodily, spatial and even personal symbol systems”. In this theory he breaks down the cognitive accomplishments occur in a range of domains. Some are universal, some cultural, and some unique to an individual or small group. The domains operate independently from one another. He looked at two extremes, prodigies as well as brain damaged individuals. He places importance of the nervous system and its effect on the intellect. In this section of the chapter, Gardener also discusses his colleges and the area of research that they cover in relation to this approach to understanding intelligence. He ends the chapter with his statement that the most valuable information is most likely to come from a deep knowledge of the nervous system.

Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Intelligence

The phenomena to be explained; Gardener states that a comprehensive science of life must account for the nature, as well as the variety of human intellectual competences. The first issue he says involves the flexibility of human development. He believes that the appropriate educational interventions in development of intelligence are crucial to produce a different range and depth of capacities. “Educational efforts must build upon a knowledge or these intellectual proclivities and their points of maximum flexibility and adaptability”. Genetics is an obvious concern with studies of the intellect, however lessons in this area are far from direct, and Gardner states. The fundamental consideration of the DNA is the relationship between the genotype and the phenotype to any individual behavioral and intellectual profile. However, he states that we know very little when it comes to the formation of complex traits such as musical ability or so on. He discusses the hypothesis of how combinations of genes can create greater potential for high achievement, however they are far from established facts. He discusses the problems of reading into genetics when looking at intelligence, however being the genetic pool being so diverse as it is; it is more likely to prove a range of human intelligences accurately. Much more than genetics, the neurobiological perspective and findings are much closer to the phenomena of the cognition and the mind. Gardener outlines his approach concerning the flexibility of development and the identity of human competences. He states that most of his research is done through animals; vertebrates and invertebrates although his concern is with the capacities of humans. He is mostly influenced in this area by the work of Hubel and Wiesel. These scientists developed the understanding of the visual system in mammals. He was also influenced by and the works of Notebohm, Marler, and Konishi and their work on the singing capacities in birds. In this first part of the chapter Gardener outlines the idea of plasticity in the neurological functions and development in the human, its possibilities and limitations. Plasticity is more profound early on; bring the principle of the critical periods of development into consideration. Another point in this is the concept he calls uncommittedness, which is the fact that large portions of children’s cortex remain uncommitted and available for “diverse” use during early childhood: therefore if one section is damaged then the others could possibly compensate, and the child could still develop almost normally. He goes into depth about the concepts of cellular neurological development and the implications of adaptation in cases of deformity or injury. Gardener describes different avian species and the methods of song development they embody. The study of bird song is beneficial to him be cause it “provides one intriguing model for how organisms come to master a highly particular kind of skill through the interplay of environmental stimulation, exploratory practice and predisposition to develop certain structures of the nervous system.” He feels that one day the principles involved in understanding the bird song process can be applied to the cognitive and symbolic systems of human beings. Gardener also evaluated the studies of Eric Kandel and the //Aplysia Californica//, a simple mollusk. The mollusk, with a small number of neurons is capable of relatively complicated reactions to outside stimuli. His findings can begin to bridge the gap between behavior and biology. “Through the studies of such unlikely populations as song birds and California mollusks, we have received promising insights into the ways in which forms of learning are manifest at the nervous system, cellular and biochemical levels.” From this Gardner goes on to give us and understanding of the organizational structure of the nervous system, and how we should view it at two different levels, a fine grained molecular structure as well as the grosser or molar structure. He outlines both types in the next few pages. On the molecular level, he describes the structure of the brain cells of the cerebral cortex as being organized into columns or modules. For his purposes, he is interested in the “appearance and location of different neural units” can provide the identity of its valued processes and functions. On the molar level, it is known that different parts of the brain have specific cognitive function, and this is what Gardener backs up in this section. He discusses the research with brain-damaged individuals, and the effect of brain damage to specific areas of the brain and how this can be adapted or not, depending on the stage of development. Gardener goes on to describe the evolution of thought and experiment in relation to brain organization and cognitive psychology, and the come to a general consensus for brain localization. However, he states that “even if localization proves to be the most accurate description of the nervous system, it remains possible that there may still be very general problem solving devices as well as considerable ‘horizontal’ structure-with perception, memory, learning and the like cutting across heterogeneous contents”. Stating that it is high time that scientists need to anayilize the nervous system and its implications for cognitive process. In the conclusion, Gardner sums up the chapter in a more generalized way, stating that according to findings in neurology there is increasing evidence for the existence of functional units in the nervous systems. These columns serve specific functions and suggest a biological basis for specialized intelligences. At the very end of this chapter he states the burden of this book is” to bring to bear the insights culled from these various windows on cognition, cultural no less than biological; to see which families of intellectual competence, examined together, make the most sense.”

Chapter 4: What is Intelligence?

Having given us a background on intelligence and cognition, Gardner begins this chapter with a disclaimer; since no science is absolute and completely fallible, especially the behavioral sciences, and that it is impossible to ever come up with a complete list of all human intelligences, it still needs to be done in light of new developments in science and research. In moving on to the intellectual competences he asks us to consider two important topics; what are the prerequisites for intelligence, and what are the actual criteria by which we judge an individual’s competence? For Gardner, intelligence must entail a set of skills of problem solving, “enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that she or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product, and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems, therefore laying the ground work for the acquisition of new knowledge”. In his prerequisites for the theory of multiple intelligences, it is important that it represents a spectrum of abilities used by all human cultures. He then goes on to review the eight criteria of intelligence in his theory, however admitting that there is no objective way of measuring or determining their existence, only a “artistic judgment” can be made. He lists them as: //potential isolation by brain damage//; //the existence of idiot savants, prodigies and other exceptional individuals//; //an identifiable core operation or set of operations; a distinctive developmental history, along with a definable set of expert ‘end of state’ performances//; //an evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility//; //support from experimental psychological tasks//; //support from psychometric findings//, and lastly //susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system//. The remainder part of the chapter deals with what intelligence is not, and its further definition by Gardner. He speaks of it as a “know-how” as opposed to a “know-that” idea, for example the know how being I know how to ride a bike, as opposed to the know-that idea would be I have read how to ride a bike. Another point he makes is the importance he will stress in this book of the combination of intelligences to complete culturally relevant tasks. The final statement he gives in this chapter is that these intelligences he will outline are mere fictions, and that “nature brooks no sharp discontinuities or the sort proposed here”. He separates and defines them in order to “illuminate scientific issues and tackle pressing practical problems.”

Chapter 5: Linguistic Intelligence

Gardener begins his review of Linguistic intelligence by an overview of how poetry defines this form of intelligence. In the poet one can see the core operations of language at work at it’s finest. He outlines four aspects of the linguistic knowledge that have proved important in human society: First is the rhetorical aspect of language, the ability to use language to convince others in a course of action. This can be seen in the persuasive skills of lawyers and politicians. Secondly is the mnemonic potential, the capacity to use their tool to help remember information. Thirdly is the role in explanation, such as teaching and learning through language, such as oral instruction and employing verse. The fourth is the potential for language to explain its own activities, “the ability to use language to reflect upon language, to engage in ‘metalinguistic” analysis. To convey the idea of these four facets of language is the goal of this chapter. Following this, he goes to describe the development of the poet/writer and the steps of exercises he must take to reach mastery, the ultimate goal of creating his or her own framework for expressing their words and ideas. He quotes Karl Shapiro in saying “Genius in poetry is probably only the intuitive knowledge of form.” Gardner spends a majority of this chapter discussing the detailed relationships of the brain to linguistic capabilities, and the abnormalities and adaptations, which come with certain brain lesions or damage. He also discusses the evolution of language, and his belief that is more likely to have come together from a number or discrete communication systems, as opposed to the belief it was created instantly. In conclusion, he emphasizes language as the core product of the vocal tract and a message to the human ear, and understanding human language and its representation in the brain must be understood with its relationship between the audiory-oral tract. Gardner is not stating that linguistic intelligence is the same as auditory-oral intelligence, because the two have been proven to exist without the other. This brings him to introduce the 6th chapter on musical intelligence. What the two forms have in common is the fact that they are not tied to the physical world, as is the case in spatial and logical-mathematical intelligences.

Chapter 8: Spatial Intelligence This chapter expresses the usefulness of visuals to help the understanding of information and enhancing intelligence. One of many examples used in the chapter is that when asked to fold a piece of paper in half, then in half twice more, determine how many squares are in the paper. The paper is the visual, however a mathematician would know that 2x2x2 will give you the same answer as folding the paper. The paper is merely a visual to help understand why 2x2x2 is 8.

Chapter 9: Bodily Kinesthetic

This chapter solely discusses the bodily kinesthetic intelligence. Gardner defines this intelligence as being characterized by the highly skilled and differentiated ways a person moves their body. This movement is purpose driven as well as expressive. Also involved in this intelligence is the ability to work well with objects, utilizing fine and gross motor skills. Gardner also discusses various examples such as the Greeks who focused on the artistic form of the body. As well as many dancers who treat dance as its own separate language.

Chapter 10: The Personal Intelligences

In this chapter Gardner deals with the personal intelligences, the intrapersonal and interpersonal. According to Gardner the intrapersonal intelligence deals with the ability to decode, identify, and assimilate one’s own feelings. The interpersonal deals with one’s ability to observe and distinguish the emotions of others. Gardner associates both of these with a sense of self, of having knowledge of oneself and one’s own mood and temperament. He then discusses the evolution of these intelligences throughout childhood. Beginning with infancy and an infant’s capacity for interpersonal intelligence and then the toddler who then begins to develop their intrapersonal intelligence. And then discussing the enmeshing of these two as the child grows.

Chapter 11: A critique of the theory of multiple intelligences

This chapter discusses related theories, ones that Gardner drew from to create his own. Among these influences are Piaget, Erickson, D. Alan Allport, and Jerry Fodor. Mainly Allport’s theory of brain function. In which he theorizes that the mind is a number of independent systems. They run parallel to one another and are activated by certain information. Fodor’s theory is closely related, focusing on the “modularity of the mind” or that mental processes are separate modules. (282) He then goes on to discuss the higher level cognitive functions such as common sense, originality, metaphorical capacity and wisdom.

Chapter 12: The Socialization of Human Intelligences through Symbols In chapter 12, Gardner describes the way in which the use of symbols develop in normal individuals. And consider how human intelligence can be arranged in the service of specific roles by the symbolic systems and interpretative frameworks of the wider culture. The development of competence with the symbol systems has 4 phases; during infancy, early childhood, school age, and adolescence and adulthood. In such events these symbols occur and work with three factors, the streams, waves, and channels of symbolization. Streams are a basic challenge that entails an understanding and a growing capacity of an event which involves appropriate symbol systems of the culture. Waves are a good example for the ability of a child to indicate that an action has been carried out occupied by an factor; expressing such meanings is through words. Channels are the means of organizing information that has changed within a given culture and are now furnished directly to the younger leaner. These channels come to put forth a greater effect on the child’s symbolic practices and achievements. Issues arise in the symbolic development. One issue is when a child is trapped within his abilities and is isolated from others, while the mature is able to gain conscious access to his abilities and assemble them for different ends. The second issue is the extent to which such stages may be linked to certain ages. The final issue relates both to the range of abilities or potentials that one can find within a population and to the degree to which that range can be affected by environmental manipulations. These can play a decisive role in determining the individuals ultimate level of performance. “Individuals obtain competence with various symbol systems and learn to fashion diverse symbolic products, that we are most likely to gain a better understanding of the means by which on becomes (or fails to become) a productive member of one’s community.” (320). The effects of culture depend upon the development of the individual. Cultures organize basic information processing capacities. Every individual’s mental powers are absorbed from the outside, first having the knowledge and actions of other persons, and only gradually becoming affected into ones realistic dimensions. Chapter 13: The Education of Intelligences In chapter 13, Howard Gardner communicates that intelligence can and does develop within a culture, and can be utilized in various educational settings. It is the means used by the society, and the various modes of education and training that will consider the education of intelligence. Intelligence is used in an educational concurrence meaning, that individuals may learn through the development of codes, demonstrations or of social bonds through the means of transmissions. The intelligences involved are the actual ways of learning used in one or another settings, which means the learner observes an adult activity. Next there are particular sites where learning takes place, which is where the learner is placed near the model, who is at the time doing some event. Next in the equation of knowledge is where the particular agents are concerned with this task. The general situation in which learning takes place occurs in a particular cultural background. Three transitional forms of education are Initiative Rites, Bush Schools and Apprenticeship Systems. Initiative Rites are when the youths of a culture are subjected to challenging experiences and are asked to master behaviors or information’s as a step in the transition from childhood to adulthood. Bush Schools are where an individual child can learn how to perform many skills important for the life of the community. Finally Apprenticeship Systems is where a child leaves home during pre-adolescent and goes to live for several years in the home of a master of a particular craft, only to get a positive outcome and achieve greater skills from learning and adapting. Three components that typically occur together in modern education is attendance at a school, gaining of various illiteracies, and the distribution of the scientific method. These are modes of transmitting knowledge and tend to connect with one another in ways in which they typically interact. Chapter 14: The Application of Intelligences In chapter 14, Gardner explains that the theory of multiple intelligences may help us to understand more the reasons for the successfulness or the unsuccessfulness of various programs designed to help individuals realize their potential. Some principles may help planners and policy makers think through more efficiently the goals and the means of various observation. The development of intelligence and the realization of human potential and the role of education is very much in the universal air- such as economic development and national governments. Human intelligence should begin with a conflict of what the human species is like, and a consideration in which its members are motivated to perform more thoroughly, given resources and timely involvement. Intelligence in human beings should have the potential for advancement. Further more, Gardner explains the Suzuki Talent Education Method. Suzuki’s aim is that he is interested in forming an individual with a strong, positive, and attractive character. Its is primarily determined by a range of factors from the agents of transmission to the kinds of intelligences, which is related to the accomplishment of skills. Howard Gardner examines educational experiments determining certain ways of evaluating individual profiles better than others. “It is important that a society find some way of training, and then using, those abilities that permit a vision of a large and complex whole.”( 392)
 * Key Passages:**

Page 104: “Pitch is more central in certain cultures- for example, those Oriental societies that make use of tiny quarter-tone intervals; while rhythm is correctively emphasized in sub-Saharan Africa, where the rhythmic ratios can reach a dizzying metrical complexity. Part of the organization of music is horizontal- the relations among the pitches as they unfold over time; and part is vertical, the effects produced when two or more sounds are emitted at the same time, giving rise to a harmonic or a dissonant sound.

Page 174: “The most elementary operation, upon which other aspects of spatial intelligence rest, is the ability to perceive a form or an object. One can test this ability by multiple-choice questions or by asking an individual to copy a form; copying turns out to be a more demanding assignment, often latent difficulties in the spatial realm can be detected through errors in a copying task. Analogous tasks can, incidentally, be posed in the tactile modality, for both blind and sighted

Page 174: “Once one is asked to manipulate the form or the object, appreciating how it will be apprehended from another viewing angle, or how it would look (or feel) were it turned around, one enters fully into the spatial realm, for a manipulation through space has been required. Such tasks of transformation can be demanding, as one is required to ‘mentally rotate’ complex forms through any number of twists and turns.”

Page 179: “At the end of the sensori-motor stage of early childhood, youngsters become capable of mental imagery. They can imagine a scene or an event without having to be there.”

Page 185: “Certain experiences-such as color- are forever closed to the individual blind from birth, while many others-such as apprehension of perspective- can be grasped only with the greatest difficulty. Nonetheless, research with blind subjects has indicates that spatial knowledge is not totally dependant upon the visual system, and that blind individuals can even appreciate certain aspects of pictures.”

Page 191: “Spatial thinking of the sorts sketched at the beginning of this chapter can participate in the scientific process. Sometimes the actual problem is spatial- as in the case of the building of the DNA models- and so the answer involves thinking (or even direct modeling) in this medium.”

“Described in this vein, bodily intelligence completes a trio of object-related intelligences; logical-mathematical intelligence, which grows out of the patterning of objects into numerical arrays; spatial intelligence, which focuses on the individual’s ability to transform objects within his environment and to make his way amidst a world of objects in space; and, bodily intelligence, which focussing inward, is limited to the exercise of one’s own body and, facing outward, entails physical actions on objects in the world.” Pp. 235

“On the one side, there is the development of the internal aspects of a person. The core capacity at work here is access to one’s own feeling life—one’s range of affects or emotions; the capacity instantly to effect discriminations among these feelings and, eventually to label them, to enmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw upon them as a means of understanding and guiding one’s behavior.” Pp. 239

“The other personal intelligence turns outward, to other individuals. The core capacity here is the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals and, in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions. Examined in its most elementary from, the interpersonal intelligence entails the capacity of the young child to discriminate among the individuals around him and to detect their various moods.” Pp. 239

“It is the unusual individual who does not try to deploy his understanding of the personal realm in order to improve his own well being or his relationship to the community. There is, of course, no guarantee that his form of personal intelligence will prove adequate to this task, or that he will be able to achieve what he wants. Forms of personal intelligences, no less than forms of other intelligences, can misfire or fail in their intent, and ‘know-that’ does not readily or reliably translate into ‘know-how’.” Pp. 241

“Key to Allport’s formulation is the claim that every production system is content-dependent: our cognitive activities are related not to the quantity of information to be processed but, rather, to the presence of particular patterns to which specific neural structures must (and do) resonate.” Pp. 281

“What is crucial is not the label but, rather, the conception: that individuals have a number of domains of potential intellectual competence which they are in the position to develop, if they are normal and if the appropriate stimulating factors are available.” Pp. 284

“According to my analysis there, the roots of a sense of self lie in the individual’s exploration of his own feelings and in his emerging ability to view his own feelings and experiences in terms of the interpretive schemes and symbol systems provided by the culture.” Pp. 294

“It is through symbols and symbol systems that our present framework, rooted in the psychology of intelligences, can be effectively linked with the concerns of culture, including the rearing of children and their ultimate placement in niches of responsibility and competence.” (300) “Discovery of an individuals inherent intellectual profile, which i believe may be possible, need not serve, then, as means of pigeonholing the individual or of consigning him to an intellectual junk heap; rather, such discovery should provide a means for assuring that every individual has available to him as many options as possible as well as the potential to achieve competence in whatever fields he and his society deem important.” (316). “Given the complexity of any situation in which one or more individuals are charged with the transmission of knowledge to another set of individuals, it is essential to consider a large set of components and thus, unfortunately, to be confined to a summary account of each.” (334) “An individual profiles must be considered in the light of goals pursued by the wider society: and sometimes, in fact, individuals with gifts in certain directions must nonetheless be guided along other, less favored paths, simply because the needs of the culture are particularly urgent i that realm at that time.” (392) “[Robert S. McNamara, then president of the World Bank, declared in a 1980 speech] went on to note that human development- which he defined as better education, health, nutrition, and family planning a the local level-promotes economic growth as effectively as does capital investment in physical plans.” (369) “Most contemporary psychological analyses assume an individual eager to learn; but, in fact, such factors as proper motivation, an affective state conducive to learning, a set of values that favors a particular kind of learning, and a supporting cultural context are indispensable (though often elusive) factors in the educational process.” (373).
 * “**In order to make informed decisions about which paths to follow and which abjure, educational planners have sought to understand better the effects and implications of the principal features of education in the developed world- such features as enrollment in a secular school, acquisition of literacy, and mastery of the scientific method.” (356-375).


 * Key Terms:**

__Spatial Intelligence:__ Described on page 174, as the use of, but not limited to, visuals to enhance understanding and intelligence. “From some points of view, it would be appropriate to propose the descriptor //visual// because, in normal human beings, spatial intelligence is closely tied to, and grows most directly out of, one’s observation of the visual world.”

__Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence:__ the ability to use one’s body very skillfully. This also deals with the ability to skillfully manipulate objects, utilizing both fine and gross motor movements.

__Intrapersonal Intelligence:__ the ability to examine, discriminate between, and assimilate one’s own emotions.

__Interpersonal Intelligence:__ the ability to observe and discriminate between the emotions of others

__Sense of Self:__ An individual’s own knowledge of their mind. As well as the knowledge that emerges from how others perceive the individual.

__Common Sense:__ The ability to deal with problems quickly and accurately. As well as the ability to plan ahead, “to exploit opportunities, to guide their destinies and those of others in a prudent way, uncontaminated by jargon, ideology, or elaborate but possibly irrelevant theories.” 287

__Originality:__ The ability to create something unknown from a series of known elements.

__Metaphorical Capacity:__ The ability to understand and perceive metaphors and analogies, as well as to use different intellectual domains to create the connections.

__Wisdom:__ The ability to use a wide range of experiences sand apply them to another part of one’s life, or to the life of another. __Symbols__- “Following my mentor Nelson Goodman and other authorities, I conceive of a symbol as any entity (material or abstract) that can denote or refer to any other entity.” (301). Symbols are strictly something that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. __Plasticity__- “In my view, there is a period of relatively great flexibility or plasticity during the first years of symbolic development: at this time, one has many options for the exploration of particular symbolic systems, the devising of unusual symbolic combinations, or the actual transgression of symbolic boundaries.” (312) Plasticity in this sense is being made to assume a desired form. __Intellectual__- “ An intellectual strengths opens up possibilities; a combination of intellectual strengths spawns a multiplicity of possibilities.” (317) Intellectual is involving intelligence rather than emotions or instinct. __Media__- “While direct forms of learning are largely unmediated, involving at most a simple verbal description or a line diagram sketched “in the sand,” more formal forms of learning rely heavily on discrete media of transmission.” (335) Media is pertaining to or concerned with such means or the means of communication that reach or influence people. __Transmission__- “In these forms of knowledge transmission, the technical skills-be they bodily, musical, or spatial- are rarely divorced from the interpersonal facets of life within a culture.”(344) Transmission is the act or process of transmitting; of sending a message or communication by means of transmitting signals. __Capacity__- “ The capacity of employ various symbolized notations enables one to supplement one’s memory, organize one’s future activities, and communicate at one time with an indefinite number of individuals ( the set of all potential reader).”(359) The power to learn or retain knowledge; mental ability. Capacity is distinctive potential for growth, development, or accomplishment. __Potential__- “In Learning to Be, the prestigious UNESCO report of 1972, Edgar Faure, former prime minister of France, and his colleagues made the provocative statement that “the human brain has a very large unused potential which some authorities- more or less arbitrarily- have assessed at 90 percent.” The job of education-to realize this unused potential.”(369) having potential is having possibility, capability, or power. The characteristic ability or capacity for growth, development, or coming into being. __Development__- “Part of this process simply involves certain “natural” processes of development, whereby a capacity passes through a predictable set of stages as it matures and is differentiated.” (372). Development is the act or process of developing; growth; progress. __Knowledge__- Nonetheless, knowledge is accruing and will- I hope- continue to accrue about what human beings are like, when considered in relative isolation and as members of a functioning cultural entity.” (393). Knowledge described in this sense is familiarity, awareness, or understanding gained through experience or study.